May 16, 2024  
2018-2019 Undergraduate Catalog 
    
2018-2019 Undergraduate Catalog [ARCHIVED CATALOG]

Course Descriptions


Use the course filter below to search for active courses.

Course numbers followed by an ‘L’ are cross-listed with another department or program.

This catalog may contain course information that is out of date. Before registering for a course, always check the course information in WISER.

 

Political Science

  
  • POLSCI 252 - Modern Political Thought (D)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The history of Western political ideas from the time of Machiavelli to that of Marx and Nietzsche.

    000313:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 265L - World War II Internment of Japanese Americans (A)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The US Government in 1942 commenced the internment of 120,000 Americans of Japanese ancestry. This course considers political, economic, legal, sociological and historical matters in the examination of this chapter in American life. The course encompasses experiences beyond the internment, including early Japanese immigration, the battle for redress and reparations, and the current status of Japanese and Asian Americans. ASAMST 265L  and POLSCI 265L are the same course.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Diversity Area: United States

    000311:2
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 307 - Political Change and Group Identity (C)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The course is concerned with the impact of group identity-racial, religious, ethnic, gender, sexual, class, national-on political systems.

    025482:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 311 - Political Parties (A)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The American political process, with emphasis on political parties, pressure groups, and public opinion.

    025347:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 318 - The Legislative Process (A)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The function of national and state legislatures, and the role played by political parties and interest groups in legislatures.

    025349:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 322 - Politics of Poverty and U.S. Social Welfare Policy


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course offers a survey of social welfare policy and the politics of poverty in the United States. It investigates the scope and frequency of poverty in the U.S., who is most likely to be poor, what has typified American responses to poverty, and the various explanations for why these conditions exist. Addressing these issues means that the potential role of group cleavages like race ethnicity, gender, and social class for determining public opinion and policy toward the poor is a central theme. The difficulties and relative efficacy of various forms of political action by the poor, on behalf of the poor, and against the poor are also considered. The course relies on empirical evidence, from authors across the ideological spectrum, to evaluate claims about the poor, poverty politics, policymakers, power, and social welfare policy.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Diversity Area: United States

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Prerequisite: POLSCI 102  or POLSCI 203  or SOCIOL 101  or one diversity course or a minimum of 60 credits or permission of instructor

    035309:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 324 - The American Presidency (A)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The powers, the limitations, and the organization of the Presidency in the American system of government.

    025501:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 325 - Public Administration (A)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    A study of the bureaucratic process, emphasizing organizational behavior, changes in administrative institutions and theories, and the political role of bureaucracy.

    025505:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 329 - American Constitutional Law and Theory (A)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The development of the United States Constitution, chiefly through decisions of the Supreme Court. Emphasis on the origin and nature of judicial power, the way it inhibits and facilitates operation of the political process, and the search for standards by which to judge the judges.

    025350:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 330 - Presidential Elections (A)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The course examines systematically the process by which the President of the United States is chosen. Presidential recruitment, campaign financing, delegate selection, electoral procedures, media use and involvement, conventions, strategies and tactics, and other aspects of the presidential election process are covered. Most of these discussions take place within the context of recent elections.

    025514:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 332 - Civil Liberties in the United States (A)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    An analysis of the constitutional rules governing civil liberties in the American system, primarily through decisions of the Supreme Court. Emphasis on five areas: freedom of the press and speech, freedom of religion, criminal procedure, reproductive rights, and school desegregation.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Diversity Area: United States

    025515:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 333 - Terrorism


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course examines fundamental questions about the political phenomenon known as terrorism: What is terrorism? Who engages in it? What do they hope to achieve? Who supports or opposes terrorism? What are the effects of terrorism and counter-terrorism on society? The class considers these questions from a variety of perspectives, drawing from political science, psychology, sociology, and primary sources.

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Prerequisite: POLSCI 220 

    040707:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 335 - Law and Public Policy (A)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The main objective of this course is to expose students to (1) different theoretical perspectives on law and public policy (concentrating on law and the courts), (2) some important substantive areas of law and public policy, and (3) broader questions regarding the study and practice of public policy in the United States. Although the focus is on “judicial” policymaking, the broader phenomenon of institutional development and interaction with societal forces is of special concern in this course. Class discussion and assignments are geared toward developing students’ analytical skills so that they are able to examine policy issues from multiple theoretical angles and, thereby, to gain a critical perspective.

    025517:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 338 - Massachusetts Politics (A)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    A study of state and local government and politics in Massachusetts, emphasizing its unique features as well as its similarities to other state systems.

    025521:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 340 - Boston: Cooperation and Conflict in the Urban Environment (A)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The course helps students become familiar with the historical backgrounds of Boston’s social systems, which leads to investigation and discussion of the city’s contemporary political and social problems. The materials for this course consist of scholarly writings, journalists’ reports, government documents, judicial opinions, biographies, films, and slide lectures, all focused on Boston and the metropolitan region.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Diversity Area: United States

    025522:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 344 - Problems of Urban Politics (A)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Some of the issues raised by urbanization-are cities necessary? and is the relatively democratic structure of the American cities responsible for some of their problems? and has there been a revolution of rising expectations in urban life?-considered in historical and comparative perspectives.

    025352:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 345 - Sports, Politics, & Policy


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course examines the intersections between sports and politics - for good and for bad - primarily in the American case.  It examines how questions of identity, solidarity, difference, opportunity, power, subjugation, social justice, the law, development, violence, race, gender, sexual orientation, sexual identity, pay, and labor practices play out in American politics, public policy, and sports culture.  It is a course for those who love sports but hate politics, those who love politics and hate sports, those who love sports and politics, and all derivations in between.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Diversity Area: United States

    040752:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 350 - Political Research Methods


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course provides exposure to the major approaches to studying politics and is designed so that participants develop the skills necessary to both conduct their own research and critically evaluate the research of others. To facilitate these goals, the course is divided into four sections: (1) the politics and ethics of research; (20 conceptual issues in research ; (3) quantitative data collection and analysis; and (4) qualitative data collection and analysis.

    038185:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 365 - Japan and the United States


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course explores the international relationship between two of the most influential countries in the 21st century. Careful observers of the relations between these two countries rarely fail to remark on the extent to which each misunderstands and perceives contradictions within the behavior and attitudes of the other. The importance of this international relationship suggests that each can benefit from nurturing some sympathy for the other. The course will introduce students to the history of international relations between these two countries. It will also examine a series of international problems that these nations must confront together as it touches on dynamics of race, class, gender, and culture in their relationship. The course concludes with a discussion of the future prospects of the Japan-US relationship.

    040954:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 368 - Immigration Politics in Comparative Perspective


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This class explores how and why migration occurs and what political consequences it has for the host countries and for the countries that immigrants leave behind. It explores how states attempt to manage immigration flows, which range from human rights abuses to direct encouragement. The class will also analyze theories explaining anti-immigrant attitudes, the reasons behind open or restrictive migration policies throughout the developed world and why these can lead to human rights abuses. In addition, the class considers the impact that host countries have on migrants’ political attitudes and on issues on assimilation both social and economic. The emphasis will be on migration flows moving to Europe and the United States, but will also include, to a lesser extent, Australia, Japan and Latin America.

    039277:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 369 - Politics of the Middle East


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course traces the creation and transformation of Middle Eastern states, focusing on the development of their political systems and on their transition towards democracy. It explores the diversity of Middle Eastern states and analyzes the factors that contribute to the predominance of authoritarian regimes among them. In this respect, it examines the role of ideologies, -in which Islam and nationalism play key roles-, the nature of the party and family politics, the Arab-Israeli conflict and the ways in which economic developments impact political structures. It also focuses on the domestic, regional and international forces pushing for democracy in the region, central among which is the role of civil society and the changing pattern of foreign intervention in the region. The course pays attention to central themes such as modernization, development, democratization, state/society., state/military relations, all of which are key to any course in comparative politics and political development, two core categories in any political science program

    035002:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 371 - Latin American Poltc


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    An analysis of social structure and political behavior of various groups in Latin America, of a variety of political participation at grass roots and national levels, and of the influence of technologically advanced countries on the politics of Latin America.

    025356:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 372 - Central American Politics (C)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The study of the political and economic antecedents of the political situation in Central America, with emphasis on Nicaragua, Guatemala and El Salvador. The foreign policy of the United States and of other Latin American states toward the region is discussed, but emphasis is given to domestic politics.

    025589:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 375 - Third World Development (C)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Investigation of theories of interdependence, dependency, and neocolonialism. Special attention to North/South relations, various approaches to development and forms of assistance provided by the industrial countries, resource problems, and other political and developmental issues facing North and South.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Diversity Area: International

    025590:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 377 - Special Topics in Politics


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Intensive study of topics in politics. Course content varies each semester.

    025596:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 380 - Theories of International Relations


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course surveys the most prominent themes in philosophical and scientific thought about international relations. It gives special consideration to the historical evolution of international relations scholarship, and to the most prominent debates among scholars, to facilitate understanding of the fundamental problems countries face and the broad patterns of their interactions with one another.

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Prerequisite: POLSCI 220 

    040918:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 387 - The Government and Politics of China (C)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    A study of the influences shaping contemporary Chinese politics, both domestic and international, including revolutionary origins, the struggle for development, ideology, political structures, and ongoing social change.

    025647:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 402 - World Politics and World Order


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The study of recent developments in international law and organization, regionalism, the politics of economic interdependence, and arms control, with emphasis on the United Nations systems and the European communities. Examination of strategies for dealing with international conflict.

    025663:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 404 - The Politics of the Arab-Israeli Conflict


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course examines the Arab-Israeli conflict from a national and international perspective. It considers the competing historical and moral claims to the land, the creation of political “facts”, the rise of national consciousness and institutions, the influence of regional politics and the role of international forces in shaping the nature of the conflict and the means to resolve it.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Diversity Area: International

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Prerequisite: POLSCI 101  or POLSCI 220 

    035332:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 406 - Politics of Food Security


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    There is enough food on the planet to feed everyone, and yet currently approximately 800 million people go hungry. Why is this the case: This course explores the politics of international food security, dividing the semester into four sections to examine food through the lens of development, human rights, governance, and security concerns.

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Prerequisite: POLSCI 220 

    Instructor consent

    040563:1

3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 407 - US-Latin American Relations


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    To what extent has the relationship between the U.S. and Latin America shaped both regions’ political reality? This course will use IR theory to explain the foreign policy dynamics of the region. It will explore issues in the multilateral agenda prior to the end of the cold war and how American foreign policy has changed (or not) over time. It will also examine current inter-American sources of tension including drugs, immigration, and free trade.

    040753:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 410 - Pol Intrnatnl Econ


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course studies the relationship between the structure of the international political system and the structure of the international economic system, examines the reciprocal links between domestic political and economic policies of governments and their international behavior, and analyzes the socio-political choices which support the development and operation of such transnational institutions as the World Bank, the IMF, multinational corporations, cartels, and trading systems.

    025666:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 420 - Imperialism (B)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course is designed to examine the various purposes (economic, political, social, cultural) served by policies of imperialism, in both its overt and ambiguous forms, as an aspect of international relations in the nineteenth and twentieth and twenty-first centuries–eras marked economically by an international process of industrialization and globalization. Course material consists of analyses and explanations of the imperialist phenomenon advanced by both theoreticians (liberal, Marxist, realist) and practitioners.

    025843:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 424 - American Foreign Policy (B)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Examines United States foreign policy in the post-World War II period. Focuses on both historical and institutional matters. Current issues are also given ample consideration.

    025371:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 430 - Russian Foreign Policy


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Topics include continuity and change in Russian and Soviet foreign policy, the role of ideology, and national interest, the origin of the Cold War, and Sino-Soviet dispute and Soviet-East European relations.

    025687:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 435 - Foreign Policy Analysis


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | Graded or pass/fail
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course examines the way countries make their foreign policy. It considers the international, domestic, and even interpersonal settings in which policymakers pursue their goals in different countries. Understanding these goals and the constraints on their pursuit helps to explain why policymakers sometimes choose policies that, in retrospect, turn out to be unproductive or even damaging to their own or their country’s interests. This course explores the ways that seemingly irrational policies can nevertheless be explained in rational terms, but it also encourages students to view the temptation to “rationalize” critically in their own analyses of foreign policy.
    Students may not receive credit for both POLSCI 435 and INTREL 635.

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Prerequisite: POLSCI 102  or ECON 101  or POLSCI 203  or POLSCI 220  or permission of instructor

    040973:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 450 - Decolonial Theory


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This upper level political theory course is designed to introduce students to decolonial theories, broadly understood. We will explore foundational texts of post-colonial theory, the subaltern studies tradition, afro-pessimism, and critical indigenous studies, among other approaches. This course seeks to challenge the hegemony that western political theory continues to hold in the ways in which the political has been theorized, by privileging the voices, knowledges, and practices of those resisting from various counter-hegemonic locations. From Frantz Fanon and Edward Said to Saidiya Hartman, Mar?a Lugones, and Frank Wilderson, this course is of interest to students seeking to learn about the ways in which settler colonial capitalism has shaped and continues to shape our lives and our political imaginaries.

    040754:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 451 - Queer Political Theory


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Queer Theory is a field of study that critically examines sex, gender, sexuality, and sexual desire from a dissident and “gay affirmative” (Sedgwick) perspective. Its primary aims are the de-naturalization of (hetero)sexuality and (hetero)normative gender categories, identities, and expression. This course in Queer Theory is specifically focused on politics, and as such will consider two basic questions: (1) how, in what way, or to what degree is sexuality political? (2) What consequences do the answers to this question have for something called “queer politics”? We will explore possible answers to these questions by reading classic texts from the history of feminist and gay liberation, core texts from the initial emergence of Queer Theory in the 1990s, and important contemporary texts on queer and LGBT politics in the U.S.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Diversity Area: United States

    033784:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 452 - Feminist Political Theory


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Understood as a political theory, feminism consists of two basic principles: freedom and equality. It is feminist because it is believed that these political principles must be realized within the context of gender - the human categories men and women. In this course, we will critically interrogate the principles of freedom and equality, and what they mean within the terms of gender. The notions of women and men will also come in for critical scrutiny. Finally, we will consider the practical applications of these ideas in areas like politics, race, class, marriage, motherhood, family, work, rape, sexual harassment, sex work, the body, desire and sexuality.

    033785:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 453 - Democratic Theory (D)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course explores ancient and modern theories of democracy in historical context. Topics include theories about leaders and their ends; the bases of representative democracy; the linkages between democracy and revolution; the relationship of democracy and economics; the issues related to democracy and difference; and the challenges for democracy in the twenty-first century.

    025695:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 454 - Recnt&Cntmp Pol Tght


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit up to 2 times/6 credits

    Description:
    A study of twentieth century political and social thought with incidental attention to certain influential thinkers of the nineteenth century.

    025696:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 455 - Problems in Political Thought


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course explores Marx’ political thought and contemporary marxist political theory. It will address class intersectionally, that is, by exploring the ways in which capitalism both produces racial and gender differences, as it also abstracts from concrete forms of labor in order to create value. The course will focus on an interrogation of Marx’ theory of value and an analysis of the problem of political subjectivity. We will investigate problems related to class consciousness, and concepts like those of the multitude, racial capitalism, and the capitalist unconscious.

    025700:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 456 - Political Thought of Lincoln


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course will explore the intellectual journey of Abraham Lincoln and place him in the ranks of serious philosophers on the nature of man, God, and government. We will examine Lincoln’s assertion that his entire political philosophy could be traced to the Declaration of Independence and its doctrine of natural law, consider his desire to preserve the Union in light of his conception of the immorality of slavery, and explore his constitutional understanding. Our reading will include a close examination of Lincoln’s speeches and writings, as well as secondary sources.

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Prerequisite: A minimum of 60 credits

    031650:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 458 - From Biopolitics to Necropolitcs


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course investigates the theoretical tradition that moves political theory from a juridical emphasis on the legal problem of sovereignty, to a broader interrogation of various technologies of power invested in the regulation of life and death. In this course we explore both, the foundational texts of Hannah Arendt and Michel Foucault, as well as the reception, further development, and complication of their theories in the works of other contemporary political theorists, such as Giorgio Agamben, Roberto Esposito, and Achille Mbembe.

    040755:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 468 - American Political Thought (D)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    An analytical and historical study of the development of American political thought and institutions.

    025708:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 478 - Independent Study


    1 - 3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    A course of reading and investigation designed to supplement regular departmental offerings. Topics are worked out by instructor and student. Regular papers are required.

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Instructor consent

    025739:1
1 - 3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 479 - Independent Study


    1 - 3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    A course of reading and investigation designed to supplement regular departmental offerings. Topics are worked out by instructor and student. Regular papers are required.

    025741:1
1 - 3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 488 - Field Work in Politics


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit up to 5 times/15 credits

    Description:
    Carefully supervised field work, available only to a limited number of qualified students in any one semester. Written prospectus of the project, periodic conferences with a faculty advisor, and appropriate written work required.

    025383:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 489 - Field Work in Politics


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit up to 5 times/15 credits

    Description:
    Carefully supervised field work, available only to a limited number of qualified students in any one semester. Written prospectus of the project, periodic conferences with a faculty advisor, and appropriate written work required.

    025385:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 490 - Special Issues


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Guided readings in special areas of politics. May be used for honors thesis. By invitation of department.

    025761:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 491 - Special Issues


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Guided readings in special areas of politics. May be used for honors thesis. By invitation of department.

    025763:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 492 - Directed Readings in Politics


    1 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Reading of four to six books on a special topic and preparation of a 10-15 page critical analysis. Lists of topics and pertinent readings are prepared by individual faculty members. Upon completion of a project, students submit the required paper for departmental evaluation (on a pass-fail basis only). Limited to one project per academic year.

    025765:1
1 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 495 - Field Practicum in Politics


    9 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Full-time work in a government or political agency to help students integrate course work with practical training.

    025767:1
9 Credit(s)
  
  • POLSCI 499L - Seminar in International Relations (B)


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    A research seminar designed for two categories of students: a) political science majors with an interest and strong background in international relations; and b) students completing the International Relations Program (for whom the seminar will provide the context and guidance to carry out a “Senior Project” aimed at integrating their study of international relations). In either case, students spend most of their time researching, writing, and presenting a substantial paper. IR 499L  and POLSCI 499L are the same course.

    000507:1
3 Credit(s)

Portuguese

  
  • PORT 101 - Elementary Portuguese I


    4 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Designed for students with little or no background in the Portuguese language. Portuguese 101 focuses on the acquisition of basic listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills within a cultural framework. Weekly laboratory attendance and assignments required.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Distribution Area: World Languages

    025933:1
4 Credit(s)
  
  • PORT 102 - Elementary Portuguese II


    4 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    A continuation of PORT 101 . Portuguese 102 focuses on furthering the acquisition of basic listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills within a cultural framework. Weekly laboratory attendance and assignments required.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Distribution Area: World Languages

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Prerequisite: PORT 101  or equivalent

    025941:1
4 Credit(s)
  
  • PORT 201 - Intermediate Portuguese I


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Further development of language skills, with readings in Portuguese and Brazilian literature and civilization.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Distribution Area: World Languages

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Prerequisite: PORT 102  or equivalent

    025942:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • PORT 202 - Intermediate Portuguese II


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    A continuation of PORT 201 . Further development of language skills, with readings in Portuguese and Brazilian literature and civilization.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Distribution Area: World Languages

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Prerequisite: PORT 201  or equivalent

    025944:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • PORT 278 - Portuguese for Heritage Speakers


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course addresses the linguistic needs of bicultural students who have a command of spoken Portuguese but who have had no formal instruction in the language. (Offered once a year.)

    Course Attribute(s):
    Distribution Area: World Languages

    037821:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • PORT 279 - Writing for Heritage Speakers of Portuguese


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course is conducted as a workshop on writing for Portuguese-heritage students. Topics include problems of style and geographic linguistic varieties. (Offered once a year.)

    Course Attribute(s):
    Distribution Area: World Languages

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Instructor consent

    038186:1
3 Credit(s)
  
  • PORT 375L - Brazilian Civilization


    3 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    A general survey of Brazil, tracing the evolution of cultural, economic, political, and social structures from colonial times to the present. The course discusses the distinctions and similarities in the development of Portuguese America and Spanish America. Readings include historical source material, novels, and modern studies on Brazil. Conducted in English. Fulfills a requirement for Latin American Studies Program. LATAM 375L  and PORT 375L are the same course.

    Course Attribute(s):
    Distribution Area: World Cultures | Diversity Area: International

    000291:2
3 Credit(s)

Professional Training

  
  • PRFTRN 001 - Introduction to Urban Landscaping


    3.5 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This is a series of 2 week seminars is an introduction to the certificate progrm. It provides an overview of urban landscape development using Boston as an example.

    032869:1
3.5 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 018 - Novice Part 1 Chinese Language


    0 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Designed for students with Chinese background, this three-week intensive course will develop the basic skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing with a focus on listening and speaking. Upon completion of the course students will be able to greet and respond to greetings, introduce themselves, friends and family members, and express their likes and dislikes in many topic areas. They will also be able to describe their physical features, nationalities, and share facts such as birthdates, family tree and history. Students will experience Chinese culture through language learning integrated with face-to face, hands on activities such as meeting people from local Chinese communities and practicing traditional crafts, songs and games

    034811:1
0 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 019 - Intermediate Part 1 Chinese


    0 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This three-week intensive course is designed for students with 1-2 years of prior Chinese language learning experience in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. While students will have the opportunity to develop skills in all four areas, the focus will be on listening and speaking, expanding vocabulary and understanding Chinese culture. Upon completion of the course, student will be able to express basic personal background and needs and conduct conversations in routine tasks, such as getting meals and receiving simple instructions and directions using the proper conventions. Listening tasks pertain primarily to spontaneous, face-to-face conversations. Additionally, they will have exercises using complicated sentence structure. To further assist the study of language, students will experience Chinese culture through multi-media and hands-on activities while learning traditional crafts, songs and games.

    034812:1
0 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 024 - Technology in Teaching Chinese


    75 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This summer institute will offer teachers the opportunity to enrich their knowledge of Mandarin and Chinese culture, understand American methodology and classroom management. Moreover, this program will increase participants’ technology skills in order to make their teaching more effective and interesting.

    034937:1
75 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 028 - China Study Practicum


    50 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    In this capstone course, participants will observe the practice-teach in the STARTALK Mandarin Summer Camp for students grades 6-12. Guided by master teachers at the camp and the course instructor, participants will learn how to better design and implement curriculum based on the National Standards for Foreign Language Education in the 21st Century. In addition to learning a variety of teaching strategies and skills, participants will give special attention o comprehensible input. That is, to help students develop language skills through meaningful context - real-life situations - as they acquire a second language. Participants will advance their teaching skills and confidence through observation of and participation in daily classroom routines and practice teaching. Here are the major objectives o the course: Write lesson plans using communicative teaching strategies, task-based teaching and the National Standards for Foreign Language Education. Prepare and conduct lessons in various language proficiency levels for various aged students using an investigative, student-centered approach. Develop the competence and leadership skills necessary for leading a classroom. Participants applying for SI III must have completed a STARTALK summer institute or a course equivalent, or have completed or are enrolled in a university language or education program to join this course. Please list equivalents in your application.

    Enrollment Requirements:
    Prerequisite: PRFTRN 026  or PRFTRN 027

    035241:1
50 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 080 - Think Critically: Effective Decision Making in Business


    4 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course provides professionals with critical thinking skills for: -decision making and problem solving -marketing, sales, and understanding customers’ perspectives -cause and effect relationships -detecting flaws and biases in one’s thinking

    034810:1
4 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 081 - Successful Grant Writing, from A-Z


    1.75 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    In this course, students will learn how to identify “fundable” ideas, conduct research on funding prospects, structure a proposal, and work with others in their organizations to achieve successful outcomes.

    035035:1
1.75 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 082 - Infant-Parent Mental Heath Post-Graduate Certificate Program


    22 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This training program is dedicated to working on the parent-child relationship. This relationship is the milieu of development: it is where development happens moment-by-moment, day-by-day. Thus the Fellows will be taking on the task of understanding this enormously complex process and then learning and creating ways to work on this process moment-by-moment.

    035060:1
22 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 093 - Performance Management in Government and Non-Profits


    2 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course explores what performance management means and how government agencies can adopt this management approach. It will show how to develop skills to refine the way goals and strategies are articulated so that they can effectively measured, and to select practical performance measures. The course also covers how to identify target audiences, present data clearly, and analyze and use data to improve performance.

    035747:1
2 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 094 - Intermediate Part 2 Chinese Language


    0 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This three week intensive course is designed for students with 2-3 years of prior Chinese language learning experience in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. While students will have the opportunity to develop skills in all four areas, the focus will be on listening and speaking, expanding vocabulary and understanding Chinese culture. Upon completion of the course, students will be able to conduct conversations general topics in a comparatively fluently manner and pace. Additionally, they will have exercises using complicated sentence structure. To further assist the study of language, students will use online language resources and experience Chinese culture through multi-media, face-to- face, and hands on activities with native language speakers, games and music.

    035777:1
0 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 102 - Reconstruction After the Cameras Have Gone Reconstruction after the Cameras Have Gone


    3.5 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Almost every day, in recent times, most parts of the world are inflicted with one type of disaster or another. Indeed, images of horror and destruction, dislocation and starvation, as well as those of dying children and grieving women have become common in the newspapers and on television screens. Ironically, in the case of developing countries, the tragic impacts of disasters are further exacerbated by increased level of poverty, rapid and uncontrolled urbanization, and the continuous changes in the climatic, political, and economic circumstances. This course examines and seeks to answer the following questions: what can be done to alleviate the suffering of the victims and to support them in rebuilding their lives and homes? How can we intervene to mitigate the impact of disasters? How could future disasters be prevented? How could the tragedy turn into an opportunity for development?

    036709:1
3.5 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 103 - Climate Change, Global Food and Water Resources


    3.5 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course will examine the causes and consequences of climate change with a special focus on food and water resources. We will analyze proposals to prevent and mitigate global warming with both proactive and responsive policies. As a global society, food and water security is the most important goal we face, yet many people in the developing world lack even basic food security and more than a billion people worldwide lack access to safe drinking water. Food and water shortages are exacerbated and caused by climate change, environmental degradation and natural and human-caused disasters. It is projected that unless drastic efforts to cut greenhouse gas emission are implemented global warming will lead to massive crop failures as early as 2040 and become a worldwide phenomenon by 2080. Because poor nations will be most adversely affected by climate change it is incumbent upon the global society to prepare for and avert disaster.

    036710:1
3.5 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 104 - Human Dignity, Human Rights and Sustainable Post-Disaster Reconstruction


    3.5 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The course will explore the intersection dynamics of human dignity, humiliation, and human rights in the context of post-disaster reconstruction.

    036713:1
3.5 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 107 - Novice Part 2 Chinese Language


    0 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course is designed for students with 1-2 years of prior Chinese language learning experience in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In addition to improving their skills of listening and speaking, we will strengthen their reading capacity by increasing their vocabulary and expanding their topics. Upon completion of this course, students will be able to conduct conversations on general topics and be able to use basic sentence structures. Novice Part 2 students will be able to describe the world around them-features of their homes, neighborhoods, schools, and communities. They will also use thematic knowledge and skills to exchange personal information in multiple settings.

    036912:1
0 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 108 - Teaching Mandarin as a Foreign Language


    0 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course will provide language teachers a comprehensive understanding of Mandarin grammar and etymology along with strategies for foreign language acquisition instruction. Specifically for those instructors whose colleges major was not Mandarin, the course covers the basic issues of language, linguistics and grammar as they apply to lesson planning with focused activities in phonetics, semantics and acquisition assessments for language classrooms.

    036913:1
0 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 112 - The Project Management Discipline: A Life Cycle and Best Practice Approach


    0.7 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course provides a solid foundation on which to build the skills and expertise for managing projects within an organization’s environment; skills that ensure delivery of value to customers and positive economic impact to the business. The course covers the principles of project management, along with industry best practices for applying those principles. Included are topics on project management skills with a focus on the customer as an integral project partner.

    037438:1
0.7 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 114 - Independent Study in Global Post-Disaster and Management


    3.5 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Students may conduct independent research under the supervision of guidance of mentors of the faculty. Students wishing to register for independent study must do so through the department.

    037610:1
3.5 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 115 - IPMH Professional Development Seminar


    2 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Advanced seminar for graduates of IPMH Certificate Program

    037797:1
2 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 116 - The Study Abroad Experience


    0 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The Study Abroad Experience will be a special non-credit based course that provides students, administrators, and any qualified interested persons the opportunity to participate in most regularly scheduled UC international study tours, such as the Caribbean Studies Summer Institute, Field Study in Belize, theatre in London, etc. Beyond their immediate academic mission, our short-term study abroad courses can offer excellent professional development opportunities to a broader audience who will be afforded the change to examine trends in globalization and to experience world culture in a focused manner. Non-credit participants will take part in all regularly scheduled program activities and adhere to all travel and conduct guidelines set by faculty leaders and the program director, and will only participate on a space available basis and per sponsoring academic department rules.

    037815:1
0 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 117 - Organizing and Managing Senior Transportation Options


    4.2 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Life expectancy exceeds driving expectancy, yet few people plan for a time when they can no longer drive safely. Unfortunately, the same physical and cognitive limitations that make it difficult or impossible for older adults to drive also can make it difficult or impossible for them to access many transportation services. Organizing and managing transportation services that meet the needs of senior passengers is a major challenge for communities across America.

    037929:1
4.2 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 118 - Leadership: Business & Politics


    3.9 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course examines practical approaches to addressing challenges in the running of organizations against a backdrop of complex issues. Everyone involved with a professional organization must develop probem-solving skills to ensure the success of that organization. Success can mean resolving issues with management, local government, state regulators, or co-workers.

    037999:1
3.9 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 121 - Introduction to Entrepreneurship


    2.4 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course explores the creative process involved in organizing and managing a new business enterprise. Class participants may be contemplating starting a new business enterprise or already engaged in the process of starting one. For purposes of the class, each class participant will be required to choose a business opportunity and design a business plan around it.

    038210:1
2.4 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 123 - National Inclusion Project Conference


    1 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This conference will include training on serving families effectively, building lifelong friendships for children, achieving positive behaviors, preventing and handling bullying, and creating accessible activities among other topics.

    038232:1
1 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 126 - Cultural Competence and Diversity


    0.5 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Head Start has a long, rich history of serving culturally and linguistically diverse populations,and Head Start program are steadily increasing the number of enrolled families and children who come from diverse cultural background and whose home language is other than English. It has become critical that program develop culturally responsive practice and services to meet these challenges needs. This session on diversity will integrate concepts of inclusiveness and diversity to help participants develop common language around concepts, terms, and approaches to diversity. Interactive activities will provide opportunities for self-reflection, and support awareness of cultural diversity. Participants will begin to develop strategies to integrate/address cultural factors and issues that impact their practice. Participants will develop an action plan for implementing changes in their classrooms that better support children and families from different cultures.

    038286:1
0.5 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 127 - IPMH Professional Development Seminar


    4 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The NCAST training - Parent-Child Interaction Feeding & Teaching Scales are the most widely used measures for observing and assessing parent-child interaction. Used both clinically and for research, including being used as a pre- and post-test measure, the scales contain a well-developed set of observable behaviors that typically occur within the context of feeding situations (0-12 months) and teaching encounters (0-36 months). The scales are recognized by the legal system in dealing with child abuse, custody, and neglect cases, and scores on both scales show a significant correlation with the child’s subsequent measures of cognitive abilities.

    038414:1
4 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 129 - Fundraising Fundamentals


    3.6 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course will examine strategies and tools that have universal application for most fundraising endeavors. The course will discuss a variety of real-life, real-time scenarios and the class will be asked to participate in divising comprehensive action plans, from start to finish, to achieve fundraising goals.

    038454:1
3.6 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 138 - Technology Training for STARTALK STAFF


    10 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course training session is for STARTALK instructional team members only. Course content includes one week of guided online investigations by team members to familiarize themselves with technology tools to integrate into the Chinese Language classrooms. Team members will complete tutorials online (5 hours training). A full day workshop on creating technology-assisted lessons for the STARTALK Chinese language classes in 5 proficiency levels will take place on a Saturday (5 hours face-to-face workshop)

    038710:1
10 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 139 - Risk Assessment Fundamentals in Emergency Management and Homeland Security


    3.5 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Integrated Risk Management is a process to fuse, unify, and inform the Homeland Security and Emergency Management Enterprise. Taking a risk-based approach, assessing capabilities,and identifying gaps within existing and future programs is instrumental in our ability to shape the emergency management and homeland security strategic planning and policy-making process.

    038769:1
3.5 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 140 - Professional Development Using the Historic Senate Immersion Module (SIM)


    10 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This one-day non-credit workshop for teachers of grades 8-12 focuses on American history and policy. You will use primary source materials, conversations with experts, and immersive learning formats to deepen your understanding of the legislative process in the United States Senate. You will participate in a U.S. Senate simulation through a Senate Immersion Module (SIM) using the full-scale representation of the U.S. Senate chamber at the Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the U.S. Senate

    039002:1
10 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 143 - Peer Assistant Coaching


    56 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This three part training series will provide participants with the following: 1. An overview of the CLASS (Classroom Assessment Scoring System) framework 2. Practice in using the CLASS framework to rate classroom observations; 3. Practice in identify how specific CLASS domains and/or dimension can be used to engage mentees in reflection, feedback and inquiry to identify areas of opportunity, establish goals, and reflect on growth.

    039046:1
56 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 144 - Peer Assistant Coaching


    5.6 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This three part training series will provide participants with the following: 1. An overview of the CLASS (Classroom Assessment Scoring System) framework; 2. Practice in using the CLASS framework to rate classroom observations; 3. Practice in identify how specific CLASS domains and/or dimension can be used to engage mentees in reflection, feedback and inquiry to identify areas of opportunity, establish goals, and reflect on growth.

    039048:1
5.6 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 146 - Successful Grant Writing 2.0: Preparing Winning Proposals and Budgets


    1 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    In this intensive, non-credit course, you will review basic concepts about proposals and budgets and then hone your proposal and budget development skills through at-home assignments, in-class exercises, and oral presentations. The aim is to enable you to master “best practice” approaches to preparing proposals and budgets.

    039050:1
1 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 148 - Lowell Unified Professional Development Day


    0.5 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The purpose of this professional development forum is to help educators from across systems align their birth to 3rd grade curriculum. The professional development opportunities offered with focus on educators who provide infant, toddler and preschool education and the administrators that offer educator support. This particular professional development day will focus on the components and application of STEM.

    039203:1
0.5 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 149 - GIS in Emergency and Disaster Management


    3.5 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course provides an introduction to spatial technologies and desktop GIS software via real-world scenarios and research questions in humanitarian relief, disaster management, international development and environmental issues.

    039271:1
3.5 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 150 - AP Chinese Language Skills


    0 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This course is designed for students with 3+ years of prior Chinese language learning experience. The curriculum is gauged for intermediate-high and advanced-low learners as described by the ACTFL guidelines. It provides further study of Chinese through intensive training and practice, both written and spoken, with the goal of complete target language communication, as described in the AP Chinese exam. With a focus on reading and writing, students will learn to use complicated sentence structures in a grammatically correct way and two write personal responses/ 3-4 paragraph passages using Chinese characters in preparation of the AP exam.

    039344:1
0 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 151 - Infant-Parent Mental Health Postgraduate Certificate Program


    0 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    Orientation for the two-year interdisciplinary training of the Infant-Parent Mental Health postgraduate Certificate program designed for licensed/credentialed professionals working with children 0-5 and their families. Goal: To train professionals to understand relationship-oriented therapies and to focus therapeutic efforts on child-parent relationships.

    039480:1
0 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 152 - Introduction to Big Data Analytics


    1.8 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    This class aims to provide an overview of advanced machine learning, data mining and statistical techniques that arise in data analytic applications.

    039517:1
1.8 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 153 - Higher Order Teaching


    2 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The Higher Order Teaching project is focused on strengthening in-service teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge. To date the focus of the project has been on mathematics. In the final year of the project and in support of the district’s goal to integrate curriculum across content areas the focus of the project will remain on improving teacher knowledge, skills, and practice in the instruction of mathematics in preschool and kindergarten while broaden professional development topics on instructional practice to include a focus on language and literacy, social and emotional development and learning, science, technology and engineering, history and the arts.

    039522:1
2 Credit(s)
  
  • PRFTRN 154 - Higher Order Teaching


    1.5 Credit(s) | Lecture | 
    Course can be counted for credit once

    Description:
    The Higher Order Teaching project is focused on strengthening in-service teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge. To date the focus of the project has been on mathematics. In the final year of the project and in support of the district’s goal to integrate curriculum across content areas the focus of the project will remain on improving teacher knowledge, skills, and practice in the instruction of mathematics in preschool and kindergarten while broaden professional development topics on instructional practice to include a focus on language and literacy, social and emotional development and learning, science, technology and engineering, history and the arts.

    039523:1
1.5 Credit(s)
 

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